A particular quality of mythical narratives lies in their explosive potential. This explosive quality derives from the fact that mythical narratives refer to concrete objects of human experience (3.1) that are thought to be significant (3.3) because the process of dealing with these objects of human experience involves a transcending component (3.2 and 3.5). The transcending treatment of objects of human experience that are thought to be significant implies that their significance for the interpretation and the mastering of human existence is generally recognized, and that myths are therefore valuable tools for dealing with reality – which is why they are themselves fiercely contested and capable of being weaponized in conflicts of interpretative authority (3.4).
Reference: C. Zgoll 2020, 60-70.
3.1 Reference to the real world
Mythical narratives provide a space for dealing with real-life experiences. Mythical narratives are never concerned with purely fantastic inventions; being anchored in our experiences of the real world they differ substantially from the kind of narratives often used in science fiction literature or in fantasy novels, or from the imaginary worlds of many board, card or computer games.
If we do assert that a fundamental connection exists between mythical narratives and the real, it follows that the mythical protagonists of the past are not fantasy figures, but that they are equally “real”, and that their associated narratives represent something that these protagonists have or could have experienced.
For more details see C. Zgoll 2019, 371-394.
3.2 Transcending interpretations of human experience
The efforts to deal with reality through mythical narratives are characterized by one quality in particular: they are all transcending interpretations of what can be experienced. The key feature of any transcending interpretation of reality is the assumption that certain occurrences are possible only because of the involvement of divine beings who exceed human capabilities.
The defining feature of divine intervention is valid not only where the actor in question is imagined as a clearly defined deity, whether that implies an anthropomorphic appearance, a theriomorphic one, a mixture of man and animal, or any other shape; they can also be powers or forces viewed as numinous in a wider and, as it were, more diffuse conception – “supernatural actors” (Pyysiäinen 2009) who are, either permanently or temporarily, at work in or “inhabit” certain phenomena or living creatures, such as humans or animals.
For more details see C. Zgoll 2019, 395-404.
3.3 Indicators for the significance of myths
The general assumption is that myths deal with important matters, that the real-life experiences, to which mythical narratives refer, do exceed a certain significance threshold.
Clearly, what is considered “important” differs from culture to culture, and this poses the question: how can we retain importance as an essential feature of myths without becoming dependent on an external and moreover imprecise criterion unrelated to the narrative itself, such as a concentration on theme and content?
To solve the problem, a definition of “myth” must be found that requires no affiliation with a particular collective, and does not lay claim to any diffuse idea of “importance”. We must look for universal features which can demonstrate, without reference to the treatment of myths or to themes explored in mythical narratives, that these themes were considered important.
An important content-based indicator is the presence, or absence, of factors in the initial encounter with the respective objects of experience and subsequently in the processing of these encounters in the form of mythical narratives that transcend these objects of experience, in such a way as to associate the experience with the actions of divine or numinous beings in a context that is essential for the development of the narrative as a whole.
In formal terms, the polymorphy of a mythical narrative and the polystratic nature of the narrative variants can be cited as indicators for the importance of the narrative. Irrespective of individual themes and types of content, both the polymorphy of a mythical narrative and the polystratic nature of its variants point to an elevated degree of importance: as a rule, only something that is considered worthy of variation and reworking will have multiple variants and layers of reworkings.
For more details see C. Zgoll 2019, 404-413.
3.4 Myths as battle ground for competing world views
Mythical narratives are not created ex nihilo; they build on pre-existing material, and it is impossible for them to be or remain untouched by any other narrative patterns, by concrete narratives, or by other elements of cultural significance.
This means that mythical narratives, by definition, bear traces of their encounters with elements to whose influence they have been exposed. Myths must be understood as a giant undertaking to analyse, interpret and process phenomena, events, and objects that are deemed important, on a backdrop made up of diverse traditions and disparate models of interpretation. In myths we witness the processing not only of original experiences but also and even primarily a re-processing of earlier such processes and their diversity (see interhylistic interferences).
Attempting to resolve the inevitably emerging tensions does not – and this is just as vital – provide those engaging in the activity with any kind of intellectual entertainment; it is not a task performed for the gratification of what would in effect be a purely educational or academic interest. The opposite is true: the questions and problems confronted in mythical narratives are of the highest relevance when it comes to interpreting and managing the human condition, and this is especially the case where it concerns power relations and responsibilities in the realm of the gods.
The variety and intricacy of the ways in which mythical narratives can be functionalized, as well as their closely related relevance for mastering and interpreting virtually all aspects of human life, point to the role of mythical narratives as immensely valuable “weapons”, so to speak, in dealing with reality.
For more details see C. Zgoll 2019, 413-439.
3.5 Myths as narratives of divine origin
Power struggles over interpretation – that sounds all too human, but such a modern perspective easily obscures an important fact: from the perspective of ancient cultures, myths and the knowledge they contained were not man-made, but divine in origin. Even the knowledge of sacred rituals and the associated texts and practices did not come from humans, but from the gods themselves, because it was precisely their divine origin that constituted and secured their ’sacredness‘ (see A. Zgoll 2022 and 2025).
Accordingly, the stories about the gods also had to come from the gods themselves, firstly because only the gods themselves had and could convey truly reliable knowledge of their ‚history‘ or their ’stories‘, and secondly because this was the only way to legitimise the claim to truth associated with them.
An important conclusion from all these observations is that myths in ancient societies are primarily assigned to the field of religion; all other aspects are subordinate. Myths are art, but not art as l’art pour l’art, but rather art in the service of the gods, whose essential content comes from the gods themselves. This content is stored and transmitted in the form of myths, among other things. From a modern perspective, myths may seem colourful and sometimes strange, but for ancient people they were the main religious ‚handrail‘, providing support and guidance, to which they clung on the mountain climb of their lives (C. Zgoll 2019, 418-428; 2026).
References:
Pyysiäinen, I., 2009, Supernatural Agents: Why We Believe in Souls, Gods, and Buddhas, Oxford/ New York.
Zgoll, A., 2022, „Sacred Texts and the First Myth about the Creation of Writing“, in: Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 22/2, 258–314. (Open Access: https://doi.org/10.1163/15692124-12341333)
Zgoll, A., 2025, Rituale. Schlüssel zur Welt hinter der Keilschrift, Göttinger Beiträge zum Alten Orient 6, Göttingen.
Zgoll, C. 2019, Tractatus mythologicus. Theorie und Methodik zur Erforschung von Mythen als Grundlegung einer allgemeinen, transmedialen und komparatistischen Stoffwissenschaft, Mythological Studies 1, Berlin / Boston. (Open Access: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110541588)
Zgoll, C. 2020, Myths as Polymorphous and Polystratic Erzählstoffe: A Theoretical and Methodological Foundation, in: A. Zgoll / C. Zgoll (ed.), Mythische Sphärenwechsel. Methodisch neue Zugänge zu antiken Mythen in Orient und Okzident, Mythological Studies 2, Berlin / Boston, 9-82. (Open Access: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110652543-002)
Zgoll, C., 2026, „The Unknown Prometheus – and what Hesiod Made of Him. A Case Study of Hylistic Myth Research“, in: M.D. Konaris (Hg.), Studies on Greek Gods and Heroes. Interpretations and Appropriations, Trends in Classics Suppl.-Bd., Berlin/ Boston (forthcoming).